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Rationalization is an attempt to logically justify immoral, deviant, or generally unacceptable behavior. In Freud’s classic psychoanalytic theory, rationalization is a defense mechanism, an unconscious attempt to avoid addressing the underlying reasons for a behavior. Rationalizing an event may help individuals maintain self-respect or avoid guilt over something they have done wrong. In many cases, rationalization is not harmful, but continuous self-deception, when a person consistently makes excuses for destructive behavior, can become dangerous. Examples of RationalizationMost of us engage in rationalization on a semi-regular basis. A person might account for a bad mood or general rude behavior by explaining that bad traffic affected the morning commute, for example. Someone who is passed over for a promotion might rationalize the disappointment by claiming to not have wanted so much responsibility after all. Rationalization can be adaptive in that it protects people from unsafe emotions and motivations, but it can also contribute to maladaptive behavior and psychological concerns. Rationalization can become an obstacle in psychotherapy and can interfere with platonic and romantic relationships. An abusive partner who justifies behavior based on the abused partner’s failure to meet demands or by claiming the partner was otherwise uncooperative is engaging in pathological rationalization. Rationalizations for behaviors can seem like logical, clear explanations, but trained psychologists strive to recognize the difference between logically explaining one’s behavior and covering up underlying emotions and motives. Rationalization as a Defense MechanismSigmund Freud described rationalization as a defense mechanism and the ego’s attempt to make a particular action acceptable to the superego—the part of a person demanding moral behavior. He also explained some motives for behavior are too uncomfortable or painful for people to face. An adult might be afraid of the dark as a result of being molested at night during childhood. That person might rationalize the fear by emphasizing that being unable to see one’s surroundings is dangerous or by pointing out most burglaries occur at night. According to Freud, understanding the unconscious motivations for behavior is an important precursor to healing. Find a TherapistAlthough contemporary psychologists have discredited or abandoned much of Freudian psychology, rationalization is generally accepted as a common defense mechanism. Addressing Rationalization in TherapyContemporary mental health professionals may not use traditional Freudian methods to understand rationalizations, but they do frequently work to help people in therapy access and understand the underlying motives for their feelings and behavior. A therapist who suspects rationalization of a person who may have experienced a traumatic or affecting event might encourage the person to confront the event honestly in order to address it in a healthy manner and begin the healing process. A person’s desire for esteem can lead to excessive rationalization, and it is important for a person to be mindful of rationalizations to avoid ending up in a cycle of constant deception. Therapists can help people uncover their reasons for excessive rationalization or develop possible strategies to combat their emotional dishonesty. For example, a person who constantly rationalizes an inability to keep appointments with friends might consider possible reasons for not actually wanting to keep those appointments or see those friends. References:
Last Updated: 01-29-2016
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Please confirm that you are human. In psychoanalytic theory, defense mechanisms are the ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality. According to psychoanalytic theory, anxiety is defined as an inner state that is extremely unpleasant that acts as a signal to the ego that there are issues occurring. Consequently, people want to avoid anxiety, so the ego uses a defense mechanism to reduce the anxiety and associated feelings. Sigmund Freud identified three separate types of anxiety. Neurotic anxiety deals with the unconscious fear that one will lose control of the id, which would result in inappropriate behavior and punishment for that behavior. Reality anxiety is a fear of real-world events, and it has an easily identifiable cause. For example, being around a poisonous snake brings fear of receiving a lethal snake bite. Moral anxiety occurs when one fears that one will violate ones own moral ideals. Freud believed that the ego created defense mechanisms to act as shields and therefore decrease the anxiety created by conflicts between the id, superego, and reality. In order to deal with this anxiety, Freud believed that defense mechanisms helped shield the ego from the conflicts created by the id, superego, and reality. Repression is the defense mechanism that banishes anxiety by erasing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.
Repression Projection is the psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others.
Projection Displacement is the defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses to a more acceptable or less threatening object or person as when redirecting anger towards a safer outlet.
Displacement Sublimation is a defense mechanism that allows us to act out unacceptable impulses by converting these behaviors into a more acceptable form.
Sublimation Rationalization is the defense mechanism that involves explaining an unacceptable behavior or feeling in a rational or logical manner, avoiding the true reasons for the behavior.
Rationalization References By Dr. Saul McLeod, updated 2020 Sigmund Freud (1894, 1896) noted a number of ego defenses which he refers to throughout his written works. His daughter Anna Freud (1936) developed these ideas and elaborated on them, adding ten of her own. Many psychoanalysts have also added further types of ego defenses. Please enable JavaScript Defense Mechanisms
Why do we need Ego defenses?We use defense mechanisms to protect ourselves from feelings of anxiety or guilt, which arise because we feel threatened, or because our id or superego becomes too demanding. Defense mechanisms operate at an unconscious level and help ward off unpleasant feelings (i.e., anxiety) or make good things feel better for the individual. Ego-defense mechanisms are natural and normal. When they get out of proportion (i.e., used with frequency), neuroses develop, such as anxiety states, phobias, obsessions, or hysteria.
1. Denial
If a situation is just too much to handle, the person may respond by refusing to perceive it or by denying that it exist. As you might imagine, this is a primitive and dangerous defense - no one disregards reality and gets away with it for long! It can operate by itself or, more commonly, in combination with other, more subtle mechanisms that support it. What is an example of denial?Many people use denial in their everyday lives to avoid dealing with painful feelings or areas of their life they don’t wish to admit. For example, a husband may refuse to recognise obvious signs of his wife’s infidelity. A student may refuse to recognise their obvious lack of preparedness for an exam! 2. Repression
Repression, which Anna Freud also called "motivated forgetting," is just that: not being able to recall a threatening situation, person, or event. Thoughts that are often repressed are those that would result in feelings of guilt from the superego. This is not a very successful defense in the long term since it involves forcing disturbing wishes, ideas or memories into the unconscious, where, although hidden, they will create anxiety. Repressed memories may appear through subconscious means and in altered forms, such as dreams or slips of the tongue ('Freudian slips'). What is an example of repression?For example, in the oedipus complex, aggressive thoughts about the same sex parents are repressed and pushed down into the unconscious. 3. Projection
Projection, which Anna Freud also called displacement outward, is almost the complete opposite of turning against the self. It involves the tendency to see your own unacceptable desires in other people. In other words, the desires are still there, but they're not your desires anymore. What is an example of projection?Thoughts most commonly projected onto another are the ones that would cause guilt such as aggressive and sexual fantasies or thoughts. For instance, you might hate someone, but your superego tells you that such hatred is unacceptable. You can 'solve' the problem by believing that they hate you. 4. Displacement
Displacement occurs when the Id wants to do something of which the Super ego does not permit. The Ego thus finds some other way of releasing the psychic energy of the Id. Thus there is a transfer of energy from a repressed object-cathexis to a more acceptable object. Turning against the self is a very special form of displacement, where the person becomes their own substitute target. It is normally used in reference to hatred, anger, and aggression, rather than more positive impulses, and it is the Freudian explanation for many of our feelings of inferiority, guilt, and depression. The idea that depression is often the result of the anger we refuse to acknowledge is accepted by many people, Freudians and non-Freudians alike. What is an example of displacement?Someone who feels uncomfortable with their sexual desire for a real person may substitute a fetish. Someone who is frustrated by his or her superiours may go home and kick the dog, beat up a family member, or engage in cross-burnings. 5. Regression
Regression functions as form of retreat, enabling a person to psychologically go back in time to a period when the person felt safer. What is an example of regression?When we are troubled or frightened, our behaviors often become more childish or primitive. A child may begin to suck their thumb again or wet the bed when they need to spend some time in the hospital. Teenagers may giggle uncontrollably when introduced into a social situation involving the opposite sex. 6. Sublimation
Sublimation for Freud was the cornerstone of civilized life, as arts and science are all sublimated sexuality. (NB. this is a value-laden concept, based on the aspirations of a European society at the end of the 1800 century). What is an example of sublimation?Many great artists and musicians have had unhappy lives and have used the medium of art of music to express themselves. Sport is another example of putting our emotions (e.g., aggression) into something constructive. For example, fixation at the oral stage of development may later lead to seeking oral pleasure as an adult through sucking one's thumb, pen or cigarette. Also, fixation during the anal stage may cause a person to sublimate their desire to handle faeces with an enjoyment of pottery. 7. Rationalization
But for many people, with sensitive egos, making excuses comes so easy that they never are truly aware of it. In other words, many of us are quite prepared to believe our lies. What is an example of rationalization?When a person finds a situation difficult to accept, they will make up a logical reason why it has happened. For example, a person may explain a natural disaster as 'God's will'. 8. Reaction Formation
Conscious behaviors are adopted to overcompensate for the anxiety a person feels regarding their socially unacceptable unconscious thoughts or emotions. Usually, a reaction formation is marked by exaggerated behavior, such as showiness and compulsiveness. By using the reaction formation, the id is satisfied while keeping the ego in ignorance of the true motives.Therapists often observe reaction formation in patients who claim to strongly believe in something and become angry at everyone who disagrees. What is an example of reaction formation?Freud claimed that men who are prejudice against homosexuals are making a defense against their own homosexual feelings by adopting a harsh anti-homosexual attitude which helps convince them of their heterosexuality. Another example of reaction formation includes the dutiful daughter who loves her mother is reacting to her Oedipus hatred of her mother. 9 Introjection
Introjection is very important to Freudian theory as the mechanism by which we develop our superegos. What is an example of introjection?A child who is left alone frequently, may in some way try to become "mom" in order to lessen his or her fears. You can sometimes catch them telling their dolls or animals not to be afraid. And we find the older child or teenager imitating his or her favorite star, musician, or sports hero in an effort to establish an identity. 10. Identification with the Aggressor
By internalising the behavior of the aggressor the 'victim' hopes to avoid abuse, as the aggressor may begin to feel an emotional connection with the victim which leads to feelings of empathy. What is an example of identification with the aggressor?Identification with the aggressor is a version of introjection that focuses on the adoption, not of general or positive traits, but of negative or feared traits. If you are afraid of someone, you can partially conquer that fear by becoming more like them. An extreme example of this is the Stockholm Syndrome, where hostages establish an emotional bond with their captor(s) and take on their behaviors. Patty Hearst was abused by her captors, yet she joined their Symbionese Liberation Army and even took part in one of their bank robberies. At her trial, she was acquitted because she was a victim suffering from Stockholm Syndrome. Download this article as a PDF How to reference this article:McLeod, S. A. (2019, April 10). Defense mechanisms. Simply Psychology. www.simplypsychology.org/defense-mechanisms.html APA Style ReferencesFerenczi, S. (1933). Confusion of tongues between adults and the child (pp. 156-67). Freud, A. (1937). The Ego and the mechanisms of defense, London: Hogarth Press and Institute of Psycho-Analysis. Freud, S. (1894). The neuro-psychoses of defence. SE, 3: 41-61. Freud, S. (1896). Further remarks on the neuro-psychoses of defence. SE, 3: 157-185. Freud, S. (1933). New introductory lectures on psychoanalysis. London: Hogarth Press and Institute of Psycho-Analysis. Pp. xi + 240. Paulhus, D. L., Fridhandler, B., & Hayes, S. (1997). Psychological defense: Contemporary theory and research. In R. Hogan, J. A. Johnson, & S. R. Briggs (Eds.), Handbook of personality psychology (pp. 543-579). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-012134645-4/50023-8 Download this article as a PDF How to reference this article:McLeod, S. A. (2019, April 10). Defense mechanisms. Simply Psychology. www.simplypsychology.org/defense-mechanisms.html Home | About Us | Privacy Policy | Advertise | Contact Us Simply Psychology's content is for informational and educational purposes only. Our website is not intended to be a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. © Simply Scholar Ltd - All rights reserved |
