The most accurate description of a dispositional trait is that it is

Benefits of mindfulness

Mindfulness has been found to be linked with mental health and well-being (Baer, 2003; Blanck et al., 2018; Cooper, Yap, & Batalha, 2018; Perestelo-Perez, Barraca, Peñate, Rivero-Santana, & Alvarez-Perez, 2017; Shiyko, Hallinan, & Naito, 2017; Tomlinson, Yousaf, Vitterso, & Jones, 2018; Young et al., 2018). Within romantic relationships, mindfulness predicts decreased avoidant and anxious attachment patterns (Hertz, Laurent, & Laurent, 2014; Stevenson, Emerson, & Millings, 2017; Walsh, Balint, Smolira, Fredericksen, & Madsen, 2009). In parents, mindfulness is associated with decreased parenting stress, parental depressive symptoms, and child behavior problems (Beer, Ward, & Moar, 2013; Conner & White, 2014; Jones, Hastings, Totsika, Keane, & Rhule, 2014) as well as increased parent–child relationship quality and coparent relationship quality (Parent, McKee, Rough, & Forehand, 2016). Mindful parenting mediates the relationships between dispositional mindfulness and self-compassion and parenting stress and parenting styles (Gouveia, Carona, Canavarro, & Moreira, 2016). Maternal parenting-specific mindfulness was found to be related to maternal cortisol, a marker for HPA axis response, while performing the Still Face task with their 3–month-old infant. Further, maternal parenting-specific mindfulness at 3 months moderated the effect of life stress on mother and infant cortisol at 6 months, with mindful parenting predicting lower infant cortisol levels and more extended cortisol elevations in mothers in dyads experiencing high life stress (Laurent, Duncan, Lightcap, & Khan, 2017). Mindful parenting was found to be associated with less negative parental emotional expression during conflict, and this decrease in negative parental emotional expression mediated a relationship between mindful parenting and risk behaviors in adolescents (Turpyn & Chaplin, 2016).

Mindfulness programs have been developed and tested for pregnancy, birth and early parenting with promising results in maternal depressive and anxious symptoms (Bardacke, 2012; Dhillon, Sparkes, & Duarte, 2017; Dimidjian et al., 2014; Dunn, Hanieh, Roberts, & Powrie, 2012; Vieten & Astin, 2008). Mindfulness interventions have also been trialed with parents, showing benefits in parenting stress, depressive symptoms, anxiety, and well-being, as well as child adjustment (Bazzano et al., 2013; Benn, Akiva, Arel, & Roeser, 2012; Bogels & Restifo, 2014; Neece, 2014; Singh et al., 2006, 2007). In addition, mindfulness has been integrated into parenting interventions showing beneficial effects in parenting stress, parenting style and child adjustment (Coatsworth, Duncan, Greenberg, & Nix, 2010; Coatsworth et al., 2014; Dawe, Harnett, Rendalls, & Staiger, 2003; Harnett & Dawe, 2012; Whittingham, 2014).

Mindfulness and Mindful Parenting

Closely related to the reflective and open approach practiced in infant mental health work is the practice of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR), one of the best studied non-medical interventions to improve health and well-being. Originally developed by Dr. Jon Kabat-Zinn to improve outcomes in patients with chronic disease (Kabat-Zinn, 2005), MBSR is typically an 8-week program to develop and practice a state of mind that is open, receptive, and free of judgment. Randomized trials with MBSR have been found to increase executive functions, particularly those related to focused attention, emotion regulation, and self-awareness (Gallant, 2016; Tang et al., 2015). The 8-week MBSR program has been shown to increase grey matter in brain regions important in learning and memory, emotion regulation, and perspective-taking (Hölzel et al., 2011). Although no research has specifically focused on adults with ACEs, MBSR has been found to reduce symptoms in individuals with PTSD, anxiety, depression, and addiction (Paulus, 2016; Sedlmeier et al., 2012) and to positively affect epigenetic mechanisms involved in mood and stress-related disorders (Daubenmier et al., 2012).

Dispositional mindfulness has been found to correlate with responsive and nurturing parenting practices and to negatively correlate with parental stress, depression and anxiety in non-meditating mothers of preschool children (Corthorn and Milicic, 2016). Mindful parenting has been described as “paying attention to your child and your parenting in a particular way: intentionally, here and now, and non-judgmentally” (Kabat-Zinn and Kabat-Zinn, 1997). Duncan, Coatsworth and Greenberg (2009) describe a model of mindful parenting with five dimensions: (a) paying full attention during interactions with the child; (b) nonjudgmental acceptance of self and child; (c) emotional awareness of self and child; (d) self-regulation in the parenting relationships; and (e) compassion for self and child. Several studies have added mindfulness to existing parenting programs with good results. Coatsworth et al. (2015) describe positive outcomes associated with integrating mindfulness training into the Strengthening Families Program for parents and their youths aged 10 to 14 years. Duncan and Bardacke (2010) found significant increases in positive affect and decreases in pregnancy anxiety, depression, and negative affect in a pilot study comparing pre- and post-test results following implementation of a mindfulness childbirth and parenting program for pregnant women during the third trimester. In our own research, we piloted the addition of mindfulness practice to the Active Parenting 1,2,3,4! Program in the Tulsa Children's Project (Hays-Grudo et al., 2019) and then to the new edition of Active Parenting First Five Years (FFY). These activities were designed for parents to do at home with their young children, including breathing activities and executive-function-building games (Popkin, 2017). The results of parents' pre- and post-FFY surveys indicate increased mindfulness and parenting efficacy, and decreased reports of child behavior problems (Jespersen et al., 2019; Slocum et al., 2016). Taken as a whole, these findings suggest that MBSR may provide a useful adjunctive therapy for parents with a history of early childhood adversity.

Correlational studies using non self-report indicators of ER

Many studies have also examined whether measures of dispositional mindfulness (assessed by unidimensional (awareness only) or multidimensional measures of mindfulness, or by meditation history) are correlated with non-self-report indicators of emotional responding and regulation. These studies indicate that dispositional mindfulness is associated with reduced emotional intensity and enhanced emotional recovery. Specifically, both a unidimensional and a multidimensional measure of mindfulness were significantly correlated with lower late positive potential (LPP) of the event-related brain potential, a neural marker of emotional arousal, and this association remained after controlling for self-reported attentional control [36•]. Similarly, individuals who scored higher on a unidimensional measure of mindfulness showed reduced cortisol response to a social stress task, and more rapid recovery after the task, even after controlling for reports of fear of negative evaluation [37]. Bullis and colleagues [38•] found that only one aspect of mindfulness, the ability to describe observed experiences (which loaded on the clarity factor in [28]) uniquely predicted faster heart rate recovery after exposure to hyperventilation (a laboratory stressor), beyond shared variance with measures of anxiety, anxiety sensitivity, and distress tolerance. Arch and Craske [39] found that a unidimensional (awareness) measure of mindfulness was uniquely associated with reduced self-reported distress following a hyperventilation task, as well as increased duration of exposure (i.e., reduced behavioral avoidance) to the hyperventilation task among both healthy and clinically anxious participants, after controlling for shared variance with measures of anxiety and anxiety-sensitivity. Ortner et al. [40] examined correlates of an emotion interference task that assesses the degree to which emotional images slow reaction times to a neutral task, providing a potential analog of engaging in goal-driven behavior in the face of emotional arousal. They found that duration (in months) of mindfulness practice and self-reported state mindfulness were both associated with reduced emotional interference for both positive and negative images, while dispositional mindfulness was not correlated with emotional interference. Finally, studies have shown that dispositional mindfulness is associated with neurological indicators of effective regulation when using other ER strategies, such as affect labeling [41] and reappraisal [42]. Although these studies are all correlational, the inclusion of statistical controls for psychological distress, attention, and anxiety sensitivity strengthens conclusions regarding specific associations between reports of mindfulness and these behavioral outcomes (reduced emotional arousal, more rapid physiological recovery, reduced emotional interference, and enhanced neurological regulation in response to regulatory instructions). However, it remains to be seen whether similar relations emerge in clinical or more diverse samples.

4.3 Prefrontal cortical regions: a role in meta-awareness?

Activity in subregions of PFC was associated with both practice of mindfulness and dispositional mindfulness (as measured by self-report questionnaire), although the specific subregion identified differed across studies. One study assessing post-intervention changes in neural activity during mindfulness meditation found greater activity in dlPFC and decreased activity in rostral PFC (Tomasino and Fabbro, 2016). Two studies found increased activity in midline prefrontal cortical regions following intervention to be associated with changes in self-reported dispositional mindfulness, but the specific subregions listed were not consistent across studies (dmPFC (Goldin et al., 2012), mPFC (Ives-Deliperi et al., 2013)). In combination, these studies point to a role for specific prefrontal cortical regions during mindfulness meditation or in dispositional mindfulness, yet to date there is a lack of consistent evidence for particular areas or networks involved. Prefrontal cortical regions have well-established roles in higher-order functions including meta-awareness, the ability to be aware of one’s own consciousness, or ‘thinking about thinking’. Meta-awareness may be key in training flexibility in the focus of one’s attention, whether on the awareness of current experiences, or through a more distant ‘acceptance-based’ lens. Existing methodologies for assessing meta-cognitive processes might usefully be employed to assess this further (for review of tasks, see Insabato et al., 2016).

4 Discussion

The present study sought to examine the relations among the various aspects of dispositional mindfulness and rejection sensitivity. Consistent with hypotheses, all mindfulness facets except observing were associated with lower levels of rejection sensitivity. When examining independent associations between facets of mindfulness and rejection sensitivity, nonjudging demonstrated the largest independent relation, with acting with awareness and nonreactivity also demonstrating significant effects. These findings suggest that multiple facets of dispositional mindfulness, particularly nonjudgmental approach to inner experiences, are linked to a reduced tendency to experience anxiety about the possibility of rejection and to anticipate it.

Interaction models further indicated that nonjudging may be capable of attenuating the relationship between rejection sensitivity and negative affectivity. Bringing nonjudgmental awareness to one's experiences may buffer individuals high in rejection sensitivity from experiences of negative affect. This interactive effect was specific to nonjudging, suggesting a unique role for this facet of mindfulness. Not only is a nonjudgmental approach to inner experiences less likely to be present for individuals high in rejection sensitivity, but it may also be more important to help regulate affect. Mindfulness-based interventions such as dialectical behavior therapy (DBT; Linehan, 1993, 2014) that emphasize nonjudging as a mindfulness skill may reduce the impact of rejection sensitivity on emotional functioning, and mindfulness skills more broadly might limit the extent of rejection sensitivity.

Further work should examine how these findings may extend to other problems associated with rejection sensitivity, such as aggressive behavior. Heightened rejection sensitivity predicts greater aggression following social rejection (Ayduk et al., 2008), while mindfulness has been linked to decreased tendencies toward aggressive behavior (Borders, Earleywine, & Jajodia, 2010; Peters et al., in press). If mindfulness is indeed capable of reducing rejection sensitivity and/or buffering the negative emotional reactions potentially produced through sensitivity to rejection, this may account for some of the effect of mindfulness on aggression.

The present study is cross-sectional, limiting the nature of the conclusions that can be drawn from these analyses. Further research examining relationships between mindfulness and rejection sensitivity should utilize longitudinal designs and mindfulness-based interventions to examine the effects of within-person variability and changes in mindfulness on rejection sensitivity. Additionally, utilizing assessment methods beyond self-report for these constructs, such examining how mindfulness affects responses of participants to in vivo experiences of rejection, such as with behavioral rejection paradigms, would increase external validity. Generalizability is also limited by the student sample; examining these constructs in community samples and relevant clinical samples would be useful. Despite these limitations, the current findings are preliminary evidence that mindfulness, particularly nonjudgment and acceptance, may have an important role in both the presence and the impact of rejection sensitivity.

1.2 Mindfulness and PTSD

Kohls, Sauer, and Walach (2009) described mindfulness as a focus on the present moment in a state of non-judgmental awareness. Correlational studies suggest that greater dispositional mindfulness is associated with fewer symptoms of PTSD in high-risk groups such as firefighters (Smith et al., 2011), survivors of natural disasters (Hagen, Lien, Hauff, & Heir, 2016), and victims of sexual abuse (Daigneault, Dion, Hébert, & Bourgeois, 2016). It may be that the tendency to focus on the present moment, rather than on intrusive memories of traumatic events, and a capacity for non-judgmental reflection buffers the negative impact of traumatic events (Follette, Palm, & Pearson, 2006).

While acknowledging the possible benefits of mindfulness for individuals with PTSD, Lustyk et al. (2009) pointed out that mindfulness also has the potential to exacerbate symptoms of PTSD. Lustyk et al. suggested that mindfulness training counteracts the avoidance that is characteristic of PTSD and that when individuals with PTSD initially practice mindfulness they may experience avoided emotions and thoughts that result in distress. For example, in a study of mindfulness meditation training examining pre to post changes in PTSD symptoms among 10 women who had experienced domestic violence, two of the participants experienced increases in anxiety (Centeno, 2013). Consolidating the effects of mindfulness-based interventions for PTSD in a meta-analytic investigation provides information regarding whether overall mindfulness-based treatments are efficacious and the magnitude of the effect of mindfulness-based treatments.

Evidence on whether and how mindfulness impacts relational functioning

Within the field of social psychology theoretical overlaps between mindfulness and attachment theory have been proposed [8]. Secure attachment, denoted by a balanced approach to relationships, and dispositional mindfulness are both associated with positive outcomes on well-being, successful relationships, and self-regulation. By contrast, insecure attachment (anxiety and avoidance) is incompatible with increased mindfulness; a recent meta-analysis confirms that attachment anxiety and avoidance are associated with lowered mindfulness [9••]. Furthermore, studies assessing the overlapping features of mindfulness and attachment have related these characteristics to emotion regulation; factor analyses have indicated two underlying constructs [10,11]. A resilient functioning style is characterized by increased mindfulness, decreased attachment anxiety, and adaptive emotion regulation. A disorganized emotional functioning style is characterized by decreased mindfulness, increased attachment avoidance and maladaptive emotion regulation. This indicated link between mindfulness, attachment and emotion regulation suggests that mindfulness has a place in the social context.

The available evidence suggests that individual mindfulness is linked to relationship satisfaction and coping with relationship stress. In the context of romantic relationships, cross-sectional and intervention studies converge on the view that increased individual mindfulness is associated with increased relationship satisfaction [12,13,14•] and a longitudinal study of young adults showed that mindfulness of only the female partner is related with relationship stability [15•]. Kozlowski [16] proposed a number of mechanisms to explain the association between individual mindfulness and relationship quality, including increased individual wellbeing, improved emotion skillfulness and healthier stress responses. Mindfulness may have a key role to play in how individuals manage conflict within the relationship, including improved control over the impulsive expression of anger [17]. In the moment of conflict, increased state mindfulness is associated with a quicker cortisol recovery when faced with negative partner behavior [18]. Moreover, higher dispositional (trait) mindfulness is associated with lower cardiovascular activity in the partner during a conflict [19••]. These findings illustrate the positive effects of mindfulness in buffering against physiological effects of relational conflict. It is unlikely that this pattern of findings is unique to romantic relationships. The research on parental mindfulness and parent–child relationships indicates a similar pattern in the broader familial context. Mindful parenting interventions have demonstrated resultant improvements in the quality of parent–youth relationships [20], which included both mother and youth reports on anger management and expression of negative and positive affective behavior [21]. Moreover, mindful parenting interventions also showed improvements in the co-parenting relationship [22,20]—but not in marital satisfaction [22] and in the partner-relation [20,23••] - and note that mostly the partners or co-parents were not present in the intervention.

There is an emerging picture that individual mindfulness influences relational functioning, which is likely to be through a mechanism of improved emotion recognition, regulation and expression, particularly in relation to negative emotions.

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